Cognitive Issues to be addressed in Initial Inquiry
NOTE: The cognitive issues of both the target child and the target child managers should be identified. Additionally, the assessor needs to specifically distinguish between trait-cognitions – relatively stable, generalized beliefs about self, others and future prospects – and state-cognitions momentary beliefs about future performance in specific situations. Finally, the assessor might want to consider the emotional context of significant learning experiences.
A. Identify Cognitive Errors:
1. Filtering: You focus on the negative details while ignoring all the positive aspects of a situation.
2. Polarized Thinking: Things are black or white, good or bad. You have to be perfect or you’re a failure. There’s no middle ground, no room for mistakes.
3. Overgeneralization: You reach a general conclusion based on a single incident or piece of evidence. You exaggerate the frequency of problems and use negative global labels.
4. Mind Reading: Without their saying so, you know what people are feeling and why they act the way they do. In particular, you have certain knowledge of how people think and feel about you.
5. Catastrophizing: You expect, even visualize disaster. You notice or hear about a problem and start asking, “What if?” What if tragedy strikes? What if it happens to me?
6. Magnifying: You exaggerate the degree or intensity of a problem. You turn up the volume on anything bad, making it loud, large, and overwhelming.
7. Personalization: You assume that everything people do or say is some kind of reaction to you. You also compare yourself to others, trying to determine who is smarter, more competent, better looking, and so on.
8. Shoulds: You have a list of ironclad rules about how you and other people should act. People who break the rules anger you, and you feel guilty when you violate the rules.
B. Identify the Locus of Control
1. Internal/external: the tendency to ascribe responsibility to personal forces [e.g., ability or effort] or to impersonal forces over which the individual has little control [e.g., situation or bad luck].
2. Stable/unstable: the tendency to ascribe the cause of success or failure to constant or stable forces. Learners generally view their ability and the task difficulty as constant or stable and therefore they are the most difficult of the attributions to change.
3. Changeable/unchangeable: Effort and luck, however are viewed as unstable or easily changed. Controllability is the level of control that a person believes s/he has over an attribution. Of the four major attributions usually attributed [effort, ability, level of task difficulty, luck] only effort allows any controllability.
C. Observe Interpersonal Expectancy Effects of Child Managers: Adapted from Teacher Expectation, Student Achievement [TESA] materials.
1. Response Opportunities
a. Equitable distribution: provides opportunities for all students to respond, including those not expected to know the answers.
b. Individual Help: Low achievers do not ask for help or will seek attention. Those who seek help are more frequently assisted.
c. Latency: refers to the wait time allowed to a child between the question asked and the cut off.
d. Delving, rephrasing, giving clues: When low achievers are asked question they frequently get the easiest questions. The question may be framed in a belittling manner. The adult may provide cues that are simple. We are more likely to provide high achievers with a rephrasing of the question or with intelligent cues,. There are more follow up questions, as well.
e) Higher Level Questioning: Teachers are more likely to ask low achievers question that only require recall of information. Other students are asked higher level questions which require evaluation or synthesis.
2. Feedback
a. Affirm/correct: Adults provide low achievers less feedback after a response. Adults are more likely to respond to and reinforce high achievers
b. Praise: High achievers receive praise more often.
c. Reasons for Praise: Extended feedback ,which tells a child why we like their work, is rare with any child. When praise is given the reasons should be articulated.
d. Listening: Adults tend to lecture less and listen more to high achievers. Ironically, low achievers respond least favorably to lecture.
e. Accepting Feelings: Children learn more when adults are emphatic listeners able to accept the emotions expressed. Adults tend to relate to the feelings of those children to whom they feel the closest.
3. Personal Regard
a. Proximity: Adults tend to approach closer to high
achievers.
b. Courtesy: Rist (1972) found that kindergarten students emulated teacher interactions with students. Basic lack of respect and courtesy for the low achievers leads to peer rejection and negative self-evaluation.
c. Personal Interest and Compliments: Adults are more apt to take time to listen to the personal stories of high achievers. By refusing to listen to low achievers we tell them that their lives are less significant.
d. Touching: Adults should be concerned with the inequity that exists between the frequency with which adults may touch high achievers versus low achievers. Where we use touch to build trust and rapport, we must be cognizant of the pattern of our behavior.
e. Desist: Adults’ communication with low achievers is dominating and revolves around conflict. Adult behavior with high achievers tends to be more supportive. Adults are more likely to be polite with high achievers. Low achievers are more likely to receive criticism, direction, put downs and authority posturing from the adult.
D. Identify Self-Fulfilling Prophecies [SFP] of the Child
A SFP is said to occur when one’s belief concerning the occurrence of some future event makes one behave in a manner that increases the likelihood that the expected event will occur. Identified as interpersonal expectancy effects, these phenomena demonstrate how much individual human beings are interrelated. The labeling effect is a variant of SFP, since different labels create expectations for different levels of achievement. The potency of the expectancy effect underscores the idea that expectations can produce self-sustaining, as well as self-fulfilling, prophecies. High self-expectations produce high performance
Negative SFP is more likely to occur when both the child manager and the child attribute failure to stable, internal traits of the child – for example, low ability.
Expectancy theory can be concisely expressed by the formula:
Effort = E ∑ I – V
E stands for expectancy, I for instrumentality and V for valance. The variable E is often designated ‘effort-to-performance expectancy’. Successful performance increases effort-to-performance expectancy and failure reduces it. However, when effort is not seen as increasing outcomes, failure may increase expectations for success [gambler’s fallacy].
Instrumentality is defined as the individual’s subjective probability that successful job performance will result in his obtaining certain outcomes. [Ranging between +1 and -1]
The valance of an outcome, which can be designated ‘outcome-to satisfaction expectancy’, is the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction that the individual expects to derive from obtaining each particular outcome.
Note that all three variables are expectations. An expectancy is defined as a momentary belief concerning the likelihood that a particular act will be followed by a particular outcome.
A person high on trait-expectancy will expect to perform both a difficult task and an easy task better than will a person low on trait-expectancy, but both will expect to perform better on the easier task than on the difficult task. What level of performance a person momentarily expects [state expectancy] is therefore influenced both by internal [trait expectancy] and situational factors [task difficult, quality of supervision, adequacy of resources, etc.]. Thus, trait-expectancy has some, but not sole, influence on state-expectancy.
Predicting effort rather than performance makes theoretical sense, as strong motivation should make a person try harder. However, the extent to which intensification of effort culminates in higher performance depends on additional variables that are not necessarily related to motivations, such as ability, quality of supervision, clarity and difficulty of goals, adequacy of tools, scheduling of work and organization.
Performance is the individual’s productive behavior on the job. Achievement is output, in the form of either products or services, that result from an individual’s job performance. When performance is effective, other things being equal, the level of output achieved is high.
Effort is a quality of behavior.
Because of individual differences in ability, one person may have to exert much more effort than another to achieve the same level of output.
The difference between motivation and effort is that motivation is an internal psychological state that is not subject to direct empirical observation, whereas effort is an observable characteristic of behavior.
The difference between effort and performance is that performance is the productive behavior in which the individual engages on his job and effort is how hard he is trying to perform well. Finally, performance is productive activity, and achievement is the product of that activity. To assess performance one must observe behavior, whereas measurement of achievement requires the quantification of output. Outcome is the qualitative measure of discrepancy between outputs and intentions.
E. Identify Emotional Intelligence: Adapted from Working with Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman (Bantam, 1998). Some of the variables may not be applicable.
1. PERSONAL COMPETENCE
a. Self-awareness
1) Emotional awareness: Recognizing one’s emotions and their effects. People with this competence:
a) Know which emotions they are feeling and why
b) Realize the links between their feelings and what they think, do, and say
c) Recognize how their feelings affect their performance
d) Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals
2) Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits. People with this competence are:
a) Aware of their strengths and weaknesses
b) Reflective, learning from experience
c) Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and self-development
d) Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about themselves
3) Self-confidence: Sureness about one’s self-worth and capabilities. People with this competence:
a) Present themselves with self-assurance; have ‘presence’
b) Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is right
c) Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and pressures
b. Self-Regulation
1) Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. People with this competence:
a) Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well
b) Stay composed, positive, and unflappable even in trying moments
c) Think clearly and stay focused under pressure
2) Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. People with this competence:
a) Act ethically and are above reproach
b) Build trust through their reliability and authenticity
c) Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others
d) Take tough, principled stands even if they are unpopular
3) Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance. People with this competence:
a) Meet commitments and keep promises
b) Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives
c) Are organized and careful in their work
4) Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with this competence:
a) Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities, and rapid change
b) Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances
c) Are flexible in how they see events
5) Innovation: Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new information. People with this competence:
a) Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources
b) Entertain original solutions to problems
c) Generate new ideas
d) Take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking
c) Self-Motivation
1) Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence. People with this competence:
a) Are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and standards
b) Set challenging goals and take calculated risks
c) Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better
d) Learn how to improve their performance
2) Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organization. People with this competence:
a) Readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger organizational goal
b) Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission
c) Use the group’s core values in making decisions and clarifying choices
d) Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group’s mission
3) Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with this competence:
a) Are ready to seize opportunities
b) Pursue goals beyond what’s required or expected of them
c) Cut through red tape and bend the rules when necessary to get the job done
d) Mobilize others through unusual, enterprising efforts
4) Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks. People with this competence:
a) Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks
b) Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure
c) See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a personal flaw
2. SOCIAL COMPETENCE
a. Social Awareness
1) Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspective, and taking an active interest in their concerns. People with this competence:
a) Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well
b) Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
c) Help out based on understanding other people’s needs and feelings
2) Service orientation: Anticipating, recognizing, and meeting others’ needs. People with this competence:
a) Understand other people’ needs and match them to services or products
b) Seek ways to increase others’ satisfaction and loyalty
c) Gladly offer appropriate assistance
d) Grasp a client’s perspective, acting as a trusted advisor
3) Developing others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and bolstering their abilities. People with this competence:
a) Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths, accomplishments, and development
b) Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for development
c) Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge and grow a person’s skills.
4) Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people. People with this competence:
a) Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds
b) Understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to group differences
c) See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse people can thrive
d) Challenge bias and intolerance
5) Political awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power relationships. People with this competence:
a) Accurately read key power relationships
b) Detect crucial social networks
c) Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients, customers, or competitors
d) Accurately read situations and organizational and external realities
3. SOCIAL SKILLS
a. Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People with this competence:
1) Are skilled at persuasion
2) Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener
3) Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and support
4) Orchestrate dramatic events to effectively make a point
b. Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. People with this competence:
1) Are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional cues in attuning their message
2) Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly
3) Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of information fully
4) Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as good
c. Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. People with this competence:
1) Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission
2) Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position
3) Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable
4) Lead by example
d. Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. People with this competence:
1) Recognize the need for change and remove barriers
2) Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change
3) Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit
4) Model the change expected of others
e. Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. People with this competence:
1) Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy and tact
2) Spot potential conflict, bring disagreements into the open, and help de-escalate
3) Encourage debate and open discussion
4) Orchestrate win-win solutions
f. Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships. People with this competence:
1) Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks
2) Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial
3) Build rapport and keep others in the loop
4) Make and maintain personal friendships among work associates
g. Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals. People with this competence:
1) Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships
2) Collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources
3) Promote a friendly, cooperative climate
4) Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration
h. Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals. People with this competence:
1) Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and cooperation
2) Draw all members into active and enthusiastic participation
3) Build team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment
4) Protect the group and its reputation; share credit
Mood-dependent retrieval refers to the idea that a person’s emotional state can become associated with ongoing events, so that the events and the emotion are stored in memory together. Later those memories can be best retrieved if the person returns to an emotional state similar to that experienced during the original event.
Mood-congruent processing means that a person’s mood can sensitize the person to take in mainly information that agrees with that mood. Material that is congruent with the mood becomes salient so that the person attends to it more deeply than to other material. There’s a mood-congruent advantage: people who were happy during the initial experience learn the happy events better; angry people learn anger-provoking events better; and sad people learn sad events better.